Essay 3 - THE HISTORY OF THE ORCHESTRAL F TRUMPET OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

 Dr. Richard Birkemeier

 Chapter 1. Late nineteenth century (1871 - 1900)

Natural vs Valved Trumpet Debate

            The trumpet achieved true parity with the other wind instruments in the orchestra during the late nineteenth century but debate continued concerning the timbre of the valved versus the natural trumpets.  Eichborn quoted H. La Voix’s Histoire de l’Instrumentation as still defending the use of natural trumpets in French orchestras in 1878.[1]  It was Eichborn’s opinion, shared by most German and Austrian musicians, that the chromatic character of the valved trumpet more than compensated for its perceived lack of tone quality.[2]  Eichborn concluded that the best valved trumpets were in fact, good enough to duplicate the tone of the natural trumpet.[3]  The use of natural trumpets diminished to the point that the orchestra of the Paris Opera was the only ensemble of note left in Europe that employed them consistently during this period.  The cornet-a-piston (cornet) continued to be a popular orchestral instrument in France, Russia, England, and the United States, but its role also began to decline by the final decade of the century.

High-pitched Trumpets in Germany and Austria

            The most important development of this period was the decline in the use of the F trumpet in Germany and Austria caused by the increasing popularity of the high B-flat and C trumpets. Orchestral performers, particularly first trumpeters, seem to have discovered that the high B-flat instruments that many of them were using in the military bands, offered greater security than the F trumpet for playing the late Romantic Era trumpet parts.

            Tarr believes many first chair trumpeters were already switching to high B-flat trumpets as early as 1870 in Germany and 1880-1885 in Austria.[4]  However, movement toward smaller trumpets accelerated rapidly after 1882, the year in which Wagner wrote the concert high c"' for the F trumpet in Parsifal.  Prior to this, the practical range of the F trumpet was generally considered to extend from written low E (and sometimes low D) to high e".[5]  Parsifal presented trumpeters with a written g" and most players evidently found the note extremely difficult to play without resorting to the smaller B-flat trumpet.

            Of course, criticism accompanied the increased use of high B-flat trumpets in the orchestra, most frequently regarding the perception of poor tone quality.[6]  Richard Hofmann stated flatly that the shorter or higher trumpets lacked the power of the lower-pitched instruments.[7]  Walter Morrow also complained about its relatively poor tone quality as compared to the F trumpet and wrote in the preface to his new edition of Kosleck’s School for the Trumpet.., “It is hoped that this book will encourage the study of the real (F) trumpet, as distinct from the cornet, which frequently replaces the real trumpet; but as regards beauty of tone, inadequately….Small trumpets in B-flat are also frequently used (in the orchestra).  These, however, are no better, if so good as the cornet in tone; but as they are made to look long, they are often mistaken for (F trumpets).”[8]

Design Features of German and Austrian Trumpets

            The Streitwieser Historic Trumpet Collection includes rotary-valved German high B-flat and C trumpets from this period by such makers as “Ed. Kruspe” - Erfurt, “F. A. Heckel” - Dresden, “Joseph Monke” - Köln, and “W. Edward Voigt” - Markneukirchen.  The B-flat trumpets built by Kruspe and Heckel and the Voigt C trumpet are very similar in design to those built by Monke and Alexander today.  However, the nineteenth century Monke B-flat trumpet is quite unusual in design, featuring a short-lived innovation called an “echo-machine” or muting attachment.  A fourth valve directs the air away from the bell and into a mute “bell” that hangs below the trumpet.  The mute valve affords the trumpeter an instant mute change capability. (See Figure 1) A similar instrument is found in the collection of Ernst Buser and is pictured in the monograph by Edward Tarr and Ernst Buser, Die Trompete: Instruments und Dolumente von Barock bis zur Gegenwart. Buser’s trumpet was built by C. Schäfer of Hannover c. 1900[9] It may only be coincidence, but the appearance of those echo trumpets occurs almost exactly at the time of the early symphonies of Gustav Mahler who was notorious for writing mute changes for the trumpets that required more time to effect than the music allowed. The fourth movement of the first symphony requires no less than six mute changes for the first trumpet during the first forty measures, and two take place in less than two beats. The speed required to change mutes so rapidly causes modern trumpeters to either use an assistant to play the muted sections or run the risk of missing a note because of the rush to insert the mute. The echo trumpet eliminates all these problems with the simple push of a valve.

            Another late nineteenth century trumpet innovation found in the Streitwieser Collection featured the addition of a fourth valve which lowered the pitch a perfect fourth.  The unsigned rotary-valved C trumpet with this fourth valve was probably built in lower Austria and may have influenced the development of modern four-valved piccolo trumpets and flugelhorns.  The addition of this valve affords the performer a lower range, capable of reaching all of the low notes playable by the F trumpet, and better intonation on traditionally out-of-tune valve combinations.  It is unfortunate that this valve design failed to become popular with other trumpet makers and even the endorsement of Victor Mahillion was insufficient to insure its continued use.[10]

            Another attempt was made during this period to design an instrument that maintained the long trumpet configuration, yet afforded the ease of playing characteristic of the high-pitched instruments.  Eichborn described a trumpet designed and built by H. Moritz Schuster of Markneukirchen, which was exhibited at the International Exhibition in Paris in 1891.  This trumpet was pitched in low E and featured six valves in two sets of three each.  Each valve raised the pitch of the trumpet rather than lowering it.  As more valves were employed, the trumpet raised in pitch until it was in the range of the high-pitched instruments.[11]  Adolph Sax also built a six-valved trumpet and it appears that these two instruments may be related.[12]

The Use of Trumpets in Orchestras in Germany and Austria

Richard Wagner increased the importance of the trumpets in his operas and this trend continued in his final music dramas Der Ring des Nibelungen and Parsifal. Wagner continued to honor the martial history of the instrument, employing the notes of the harmonic series for the sword theme and other dramatic leitmotifs, but his frequent use of the trumpet for other softer “cantabile” motives established a new precedent in trumpet writing that strongly influenced later composers. The trumpet statement of the “Walhalla” leitmotif in scene two of Das Rheingold is a case in point. (See Figure 2) The motive is not typical of the earlier style of trumpet call employing harmonic series notes, but rather a true melody such as the strings or woodwinds would play. The dynamic level is marked mezzoforte with a diminuendo, and the first trumpet is answered by the second trumpet, playing a variation of the motive at the piano dynamic level. This very soft, delicate trumpet part is musically very effective. One of the best examples of the new role of the trumpet in Wagner’s late music dramas is the aforementioned solo in the prelude to Parsifal. (See Figure 2) It has recently come to light that this solo may not have been originally written for trumpet after all. Heinz Burum reports the solo was originally scored for oboe alone, but that the conductor of the first performance of the music drama in Munich, Hermann Levi, found that the oboe was not loud enough to be heard. Only after failing to achieve the necessary volume by the addition of two more oboes did Levi ask the trumpet to double the solo, presumably with Wagner’s consent.[13] The part is characterized by a long, slow melody beginning at an extremely soft dynamic which crescendos to a sforzando before diminuendoing to the piano level again. The second entrance is marked with similar dynamic indications, but extends in range up to the high c"'. Wagner even marked the phrase sehr zart. It is an indication of the trumpet’s new equality in the orchestra that the conductor Levi felt he could use it to double such a difficult and exposed oboe solo. These new demands upon the musical abilities of trumpet players were influential in the evolution of trumpet technique because they demonstrated to players and composers alike the new virtuosic capabilities of the instrument.

            Not all composers in Germany appreciated the expanded role of the trumpet.  Johannes Brahms, seemingly unwilling to accept the fact that the valved trumpet was an important instrument, insisted on writing trumpet parts as Mendelssohn had done before valved trumpets were in wide use.  Brahms’ use of the trumpets in his four symphonies was in fact, less imaginative.  As was previously mentioned, Mendelssohn’s trumpet parts often required the use of stopped technique and included the non-harmonic series notes e-flat, f and d-flat.  Brahms restricted his trumpet parts to the harmonic series plus e-flat, and that is about as adventurous as he ever got.  Exceptions occur occasionally, such as written A(s) in the Academic Festival Overture, but they are very rare. Brahms did continue the practice of writing occasional b’-flats.  The flat seventh harmonic became acceptable during the early nineteenth century after being ignored earlier because of intonation problems.  Brahms made no attempt to explore the possibilities of writing lower octave notes for the second trumpet as Schumann had done, but instead wrote in octaves only when the harmonic series allowed, and often when it did not, forcing the second trumpeter to make difficult leaps of ninths and tenths.  Brahms’ utilization of an occasional e-flat in both octaves indicates that he was aware that valved trumpets were being employed in the orchestras in his day.  The e-flats could be played “stopped,” but Brahms more likely intended the e-flats be played with a valve and the other notes be played valveless, imitating the natural trumpet.  Rode indicated that this practice was not unusual: “…You can turn a valved trumpet into a natural one by simply not using the valves.”[14]  Rode was referring to the military use of instruments, but the concept certainly related to orchestral performance practice as well.  Further evidence that Brahms intended his trumpeters to play without valves is seen in the indication of crook changes at the beginning of each movement of his symphonies.  But unlike Wagner, Brahms only specified crook changes between movements when the performers had plenty of time to effect the change.  It seems unlikely that trumpeters actually employed the crooks as designated in Brahms’ music.  Gevaert indicated that in 1887 trumpeters no longer used crooks but chose to transpose.[15]  It is also significant that Brahms often wrote crook designations in low C and even low B natural in his symphonies.   According to Hofmann, the F trumpet was rarely crooked as low as C and never below.[16]  I believe that, and the evidence so indicates that Austrian and German trumpeters probably played Brahms’ music on valved trumpets and transposed when necessary.

            Anton Bruckner, a contemporary of Brahms in Vienna, did write creatively for the valved F trumpet.  Bruckner’s First Symphony, written between 1865 and 1866, was scored conservatively for two trumpets crooked in low C.  The trumpet parts are characterized by frequent unisons and octaves and adhere primarily to the notes of the harmonic series.  Bruckner clearly intended the parts to be played on valved trumpets however, as both parts feature chromatic accidentals and non-harmonic series notes in both the third and fourth movements.  Bruckner scored trumpets crooked in low C, matching the key of the symphony, but probably understood that the part would be played on the standard F trumpet.  This conclusion is based on the fact that Bruckner asked for no other crook changes in the entire work, regardless of local key or modulations.  It might be argued that the composer wrote this symphony for high C trumpets, but the date is too early, and as has been previously stated, F trumpets were employed in Vienna regularly until about 1885.  Bruckner consistently scored for F trumpets with crook changes to C until his death in 1896.  He is said to have remained loyal to the low F trumpets because of their mellow tone quality rather than scoring for the more common high B-flat trumpet.[17]  It is possible that the C trumpet crook designations in Bruckner’s late symphonies may have created some of the impetus for employing the high C trumpet in Vienna.  While there is little doubt that rotary-valved B-flat and C trumpets were the standard orchestral instruments in Germany during the last decade of the century, Ed Tarr has discovered that the Austrian trumpeters in the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra played French Besson piston-valved high C trumpets at the turn of the twentieth century.[18] 

            Richard Strauss seems to have patterned his trumpet scoring techniques after that of Wagner, consistently writing trumpet parts crooked in the key of the music.  To his credit, Strauss did not call for crook changes at every modulation as Wagner had done, but he did crook the trumpets into the overall key of each piece.  Don Juan was written for trumpet in E, Also Sprach Zarathustra for trumpet in C, Don Quixote for trumpet in D, and Ein Heldenleben for trumpet in E-flat.  The only explanation for this continued practice is that Strauss expected that trumpeters use the maximum number of valveless fingerings as possible.[19]  The sound ideal represented by the natural trumpet was still very much alive.

            It is Tarr’s belief that Strauss’ occasional designation of the C trumpet is not a reference to a crook but to the high C trumpet.[20]  If this assumption were true, Strauss would have been one of the first composers to employ the high trumpet.  Also Sprach Zarathustra (1896), written for C trumpet, extended the trumpet range to a consistent high c"'.  The solo on high c"' after rehearsal number eighteen is particularly difficult to play accurately.  Tarr contends that Strauss scored this piece for high C trumpets to improve the accuracy of the performance, the C trumpet being an instrument upon which the highest register may be more securely played.  The argument may be made however, that because Also Sprach… was in fact, composed in the key of C major (sort of), it was for this reason alone that Strauss scored the piece for C trumpets.  Evidence that this is the case may be seen at the end of the tone poem.  The final trumpet note is a treacherous concert high b", played softly and muted.  Rather than write that note in concert pitch as he should have done if he intended the C trumpet be used, he instead wrote an open g" and crooked the note for trumpet in low E. If Strauss wrote Also Sprach Zarathustra for C trumpet to facilitate playing the high notes, one would think the last note should have been scored for C trumpet as well. (See Figure 3) It should be mentioned that the difficult first trumpet part in the Symphonia domestica (1903) also requires the performer to play numerous concert high c"'s, but rather than score the part for C or B-flat trumpets, Strauss calls for the low F trumpet crooked down to E and E-flat.

              Ein Heldenleben (1898) was scored for three B-flat and two E-flat trumpets.  The first trumpeter in B-flat is required to play frequent concert high c"'s, and the use of the high B-flat trumpet probably improved the accuracy of the performance.  It may be successfully argued that Strauss scored this tone poem for high B-flat trumpets to that end.  The piece is in E-flat major and all of the trumpet parts could have been written in E-flat.  On the other hand, Strauss may have sought a brighter, military-band sound from the B-flat trumpets as a contrast to the two E-flat trumpet parts that he included for the more soloistic passages of the tone poem.

            The question arises as to whether late nineteenth century German composers were aware that high-pitched trumpets were being used in orchestras rather than the low-pitched ones specified.  Contemporary writers Hermann Pietzsch and Nikolas Rimsky-Korsakov stated flatly that composers often did not have knowledge of the instruments being used.  Pietzsch indicated that composers were so ignorant of the trumpets of the late nineteenth century that they actually wrote notes that were too low for the instruments being used.[21]  And of course, most orchestral trumpeters today are aware that Wagner, Mahler, and Strauss all wrote parts that are too low for the high B-flat or C trumpet.  Examples include the final chorus from Wagner’s Tannhauser; the first trumpet, six bars after rehearsal number one in Mahler’s Fifth Symphony; and Strauss’ E-flat trumpet part to Ein Heldenleben, eight bars before the end.  These are just few examples of notes written below the range of the modern trumpet.  The Wagner and Strauss excerpts could of course, be played on the low E-flat trumpet called for, but as has been previously stated, these parts were even then, usually played on high B-flat or C trumpets.  The Mahler excerpt is inexcusable.  There is no practical way that the low F natural can be played on either the high B-flat trumpet called for, or the C trumpet it is frequently played upon today.

            Nikolas Rimsky-Korsakov carefully studied Berlioz’s Grand Traite… in his early years and later served as Inspector of Naval Bands in Russia, yet his autobiography reveals evidence of perceived insecurity in his knowledge of writing for wind instruments, a condition he saw reflected in most composers of his day.  “I had learned what every practical musician (a German military band master, for example) knows, but what, unfortunately, artist-composers do not know at all…  I came to see that all I had known of wind instruments was wrong and false.”[22]

            Ignorance of wind instrument use aside, there is another possible explanation for the continuing use of crooked low trumpets by German composers up to the turn of the twentieth century.  It is entirely possible that they really wanted players to use the F trumpets and NOT the new high-pitched B-flat and C trumpets.  The continued use of crook designations was a constant reminder to trumpeters that their roots lay in the natural trumpet and the valved F trumpet was the only acceptable alternative to that instrument.  Certainly Wagner, Bruckner, and Strauss could have written for the high-pitched trumpets but they absolutely refused to do so.  They may have been sending a message to conductors and performers alike that the F trumpet was the proper instrument on which to play their music, not the high-pitched newcomers.  But the increasing demands that their music placed on trumpeters seems to have made this impossible.

            The German Romantic and post-Romantic trumpet parts forced performers to expand their abilities at a greatly accelerated rate.  Important insight into the techniques used by trumpeters to gain the skills required in Germany during the late nineteenth century may be found in Julius Kosleck’s Grosse Schule für Cornet à piston und [F-]Trompete. (c.1872)[23] This important method book for valved trumpet was written by one of the foremost trumpeters of the period, Julius Kosleck.[24] Kosleck’s Grosse Schule… , as revised and edited by Walter Morrow in 1907, outlines the scope of the technique expected of F trumpet players during the late nineteenth century. The tutor is pedagogical in approach and introduces the trumpet to the beginner through the use of the harmonic series.  Valves are then introduced as instant crook changes within the harmonic series.  Kosleck quickly abandons the natural trumpet approach, however, and treats the F trumpet as a fully chromatic instrument, not intended to be crooked at all.[25]  The concept of transposition is introduced on page twenty-six, and exercises in transposition continue to the end of the book.[26] The note range of the exercises in Kosleck’s Grosse Schule… covers two and one-half octaves.  The student must play as low as written CC and as high as written g", but these extremes are rare.  They are, however, indicative of the fact that high g" was not considered an outrageous demand on the F trumpet and that Kosleck sought to make it a normal part of the trumpeter’s range.  His discussions of breath control and embouchure are very similar to approaches still used by successful teachers and performers today.[27] The only unusual feature is his description of double tonguing.  Instead of employing the common “tu-ku-tu-ku” tonguing syllables advocated by Arban and others, Kosleck advocates the syllables “tu-tu-ku-tu” for a group of four quick notes.[28]

The Orchestral Trumpet in England

            The slide trumpet remained a popular orchestral instrument well into the late nineteenth century in England. Stone indicated that at the end of the century the modern orchestral trumpet was still the slide trumpet, and it continued to be taught at Harper’s famous school for the trumpet.[29]  According to Bassett however, the slide trumpet was being superseded by the valved trumpet as early as 1875.  Bassett regretted this development, complaining of the “inferior tone and pitch quality” of these newer instruments[30] and the fact that players who used them usually transposed, causing a loss of the tone color characteristics of the various crooks.  Bassett sought to create a new trumpet design that corrected the inadequate lower register of the slide trumpet without losing its superior pitch and tone qualities.  He added a half-step valve to the slide trumpet and called it a “Teleophonic Trumpet.”[31]  This new design never became popular because it failed to correct the real weakness of the slide trumpet, its lack of agility.  Bassett’s continued use of the slide made its eventual replacement by the more facile valved instruments inevitable.

            The final decade of the nineteenth century was the period in which both the valved trumpet and the cornet replaced the slide trumpet in the orchestras of England.  The cornet was the earlier of the two to make inroads into the orchestra and had many supporters.  It was Bassett’s opinion that rapid, facile music was not suited for the trumpet and should be played only on the cornet.[32]  Prout agreed, mentioning that cornets were often employed instead of trumpets because of ease of playing.[33]   In his book on orchestration written in 1898, Frederick Corder wrote: “The trumpet can only scream out unimportant notes to the head of everyone else…  I desire here to record my emphatic opinion that the trumpet in the orchestra is an almost unmitigated nuisance.”[34] In Corder’s opinion, the orchestral cornet in high B-flat or A could play all parts better than any trumpet. (See figure 4)

            The cornet also had its opponents.  Arthur Elson wrote in 1898 that the cornet sounded quite different from the trumpet and was generally more easily played; however, because of its poor tone quality, “…no great conductor will tolerate it (in the orchestra).” An exception was described in America, where its use was reported in all but the two or three largest orchestras.[35] George Bernard Shaw (writing under the psudenim Basso di Bassetto) was a regular music critic for The Star and London Telegraph (c. 1890) and occasionally mentioned the trumpet playing in his columns. When he did, he often complained about the use of cornets and slide trumpets in the orchestral performances that he reviewed. “I declare, in all sincerity, to Messrs Ellis, Morrow, and Jaeger that all their skill leaves the cornet as objectionable as ever. I know very well that the slide trumpet of the text-books is an impracticable nuisance; but cannot something be done with more modern inventions?”[36] By 1894, Walter Morrow also reported a dislike for the tone of the cornet, but reported that trumpeters still employed it in the orchestra to play parts that were unplayable on the slide trumpet. Morrow lamented: “…One rarely hears the sound of a real trumpet now…,”[37] and suggested that parts too difficult to play on the slide trumpet be played on the F valved trumpet.[38]

Morrow and D. J. Blaikley were both influential in turning tastes in England away from the slide trumpet and cornet, and toward the valved F trumpet.  According to Blaikley, by the end of the nineteenth century, the modern trumpet in England was the F valved trumpet.[39]  And in fact, an important English orchestral composition from this time, Edward Elgar’s Enigma Variations, op. 36, (1899) was scored for F trumpet, and judging by the high degree of technical prowess demanded, was intended to be played with valves rather than a slide.

The Bach Trumpet

            Felix Mendelssohn’s performance of Bach’s St. Matthew’s Passion in Berlin in 1829 began a revival of Baroque era music performance during the nineteenth century.  This development presented trumpeters with the new problem of reproducing the high Baroque trumpet parts on instruments that were not designed for such playing.  Successful performances of Baroque era trumpet music were greatly expedited, however, by the invention of a new high-pitched trumpet that was specifically designed to play more easily in the high register.  This instrument was called the “Bach Trumpet.”

            Anthony Baines has established the date of the invention of the first Bach Trumpet at 1871 and credited it to Julius Kosleck, the author of the trumpet tutor previously mentioned.[40]  In fact, Kosleck is probably best known today as the inventor of the Bach Trumpet and he popularized it in performances throughout Europe.  Kosleck’s trumpet was a long-belled straight instrument in high A pitch that had two valves.  (See figure 5)  Morrow mentioned having heard Kosleck play this instrument in 1884 for a performance of Bach’s B Minor Mass given by the Bach Choir at the Royal Albert Hall in London.  Morrow described his impression of this event and speculated on the origins of the trumpet employed. “…a gentleman from Berlin, named Herr Kosleck, played the first trumpet part.  A story got about that he had discovered an old trumpet in a curiosity shop at Heidelberg, made in the time of Bach, and that it was the sort of trumpet used to play the high trumpet parts.  We were all in a high state of excitement to see this trumpet and hear it played, and to hear this first trumpet part which we considered impracticable on any system of trumpet which we knew.  I had the pleasure of playing the second trumpet part. “…I was delighted with Kosleck’s performance and resolved to do my best to imitate him.  My first feeling on seeing his trumpet was that of disappointment, for two reasons:  First, it had two pistons, and pistons were not invented in Bach’s time; secondly, it stood in A, and all Bach trumpet parts were written in C and D (more often in D).  His trumpet, I had no reason to doubt, was as old as he said; also, it was used in Bach’s time, but not in Bach’s music, nor was it capable of rendering such parts as he wrote without the aid of pistons, which were not invented then.”[41]

            A contemporary of Kosleck, the French trumpeter M. Teste (Andre-Joseph Leclerc[42]), built a three-valved Bach Trumpet in high D pitch for a performance of Handel’s Messiah in Paris in February of 1874.  It is significant that this performance was conducted by the famous director of the Paris Opera, M. Lamauraux, who was evidently so impressed with this new valved trumpet and Teste’s ability to play it, that in 1891 he decreed that the valved trumpet replace the natural trumpet in the Paris Opera.[43] 

            The success of Teste’s D trumpet encouraged other performers to play Baroque era music in France.  Merri Franquin used a similar D trumpet to play a performance of Handel’s “Let the Bright Seraphim” from Sampson in 1882.[44]  Franquin was a cornet student of Arban at the Paris Conservatory in 1872 and played solo bugle (flugelhorn) in the Marseille Garde National Band.  Between 1884 and 1892, he was first trumpet at the “Theatre National de L’Opera” and after 1894, the professor of trumpet at the conservatory.[45]

            Walter Morrow seems to have been the trumpeter most closely associated with the Bach Trumpet during the last decade of the nineteenth century.  He adopted Kosleck’s two-valved A trumpet and used it in England with great success up to the turn of the century. (See Figure 5) But Pietzsch mentioned that while some Bach Trumpets in Germany were still pitched in A at the turn of the century, Teste’s French high D trumpet was the best for playing Baroque trumpet parts.[46]

The Orchestral Trumpet in Russia

            Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky’s use of cornets and trumpets in his orchestral music demonstrates both French and German influences.  Tchaikovsky scored one of his earliest orchestral works, the ballet Swan Lake (1876), in the French manner – for two cornets in A and two trumpets in E.  Both the cornet and trumpet parts were intended for valved instruments but the cornets are treated as the more soloistic of the two.  The Fourth Symphony, op. 36, in F minor (1878), written only two years later, was written in the German style for only two trumpets, both in the key of F.  The cornets are missing from this work.  The trumpet parts are intended for valves as evidenced by their melodic nature and the use of chromatic accidentals.  It is significant that Tchaikovsky adopted German trumpet scoring procedures for his symphonies without making the needless crook changes required by his German colleagues.

            Tchaikovsky returned to the French formula of paired cornets and trumpets in Capriccio Italien, op. 45.  As in Swan Lake, the cornets are in A and the trumpets in E, but unlike those in the ballet, the trumpet parts are more equal in importance to the cornets and even find some limited solo use.  The powerful opening call was scored for trumpets with cornets cued in for added weight, only if needed.  The cornets achieve a measure of independence, playing a soft, melodic duet at measure one hundred twenty-two and the famous solo in measure one hundred ninety.  This solo is very fast and demands great facility on the part of the performer.  The perception that the cornet was a softer, more agile instrument than the trumpet was still prevalent throughout Europe at this time.

            Tchaikovsky’s Fifth Symphony, op. 64, in E minor (1888) was scored for two A trumpets, one of the earliest occurrences of the use of this high-pitched trumpet in a symphony.  Tchaikovsky was apparently more aware of the instruments actually being used by trumpeters in the orchestras of his day than most of his contemporaries.  Sources previously mentioned have stated that high C and B-flat trumpets were in general use in orchestras in Europe by the late 1880s and Tchaikovsky seems to have been one of the few composers to reflect that fact in his orchestration.  He also scored for the high-pitched trumpets in two of his last works, The Nutcracker, op. 71a (1892), and the Pathetique Symphony, op. 74 in B minor (1892), scoring both for B-flat/A trumpets.

            The removal of the cornets from the score of The Nutcracker in 1892 is quite significant.  Tchaikovsky’s cornet-trumpet music was Germanic in style and only rarely exhibited the light florid character of the French cornet tradition.  This fact alone may have convinced the composer to remove the cornet from his orchestration in The Nutcracker, but it is also possible that his sensitivity to worldwide instrumental trends may have had an influence.  Tchaikovsky consistently employed cornets in his non-symphonic works before 1890, but the declining popularity of the cornet in other orchestras of Europe may have prompted its early termination in his works.

            Nicholai Rimsky-Korsakov, a contemporary of Tchaikovsky, was arguably the most brilliant orchestrator of the period and his scoring for trumpets was as progressive as any composer in Europe during the late nineteenth century.  Capriccio Espagnol (1887) and Scheherazade (1889) were both scored for pairs of high B-flat/A trumpets.  Both works require an unprecedented level of technique on the part of the trumpet section and though cornets are never called for, the trumpet parts in these works are frequently very cornet-like in the technical demands made upon them.  The use of multiple tonguing techniques is especially prominent.  Both Capriccio Espagnol and Scheherazade require double and triple tonguing, often at great speed.  The solo trumpet theme sounded throughout Scheherazade is cornet-like in its rapid finger pattern.  Rimsky-Korsakov also exploited some of the German trumpet techniques established by Wagner, requiring the trumpeters to exhibit a great deal of endurance and range in addition to the aforementioned technical prowess.  Rimsky-Korsakov was also the first composer to include the Bach Trumpet (in D) in a modern orchestral work, calling for “Tromba Piccolo in Re” in several sections of his opera Mlada.  Rimsky’s use of the high D trumpet influenced his pupil, Igor Stravinsky, who likewise included it in his ballets, Petrushka and Le Sacra du Printemps early in the next century.

            Rimsky-Korsakov omitted the low F trumpet in his music.  He claimed the “invention” of an F alto trumpet for his opera Mlada,[47] but this instrument was really a large bore cousin of the F trumpet, scored in its low register, rather than in the soprano register most commonly employed during the nineteenth century.  Rimsky-Korsakov must have considered the nineteenth century F trumpet an anachronism and totally ignored it in both his compositions and his text, Principles of Orchestration.

The Orchestral Trumpet in France

            The valved trumpet began to grow in popularity as an orchestral instrument in France as the limitations of the natural trumpet became more serious.  French instrument makers had been building valved trumpets since the middle of the century for military bands, but orchestral players preferred the natural trumpets for their superior tone.[48]  The early French valved trumpets were commonly pitched in G rather than F.  This may have been done to match the pitch of the natural trumpets that were still in general use at this time. A late nineteenth century trumpet by Courtois and Mille, located in the Streitwieser Collection, is pitched in G. (See Figure 6)

            Most French composers adhered to the practice of scoring for both cornets and trumpets even after valved trumpets began to replace the natural trumpets in the orchestras.  César Franck scored his Symphony in D Minor (1888) for two cornets in B-flat and two valved trumpets in F.  The cornets are required to change crooks to A, but the trumpets remained in F throughout.  Franck seemed to favor the tone quality of the trumpet over the cornet because the trumpets have most of the important thematic and melodic material, while the cornets play an accompanying role in the lower register.  The only notable exception is found near the end of the symphony where Franck featured the cornets in two short but virtuosic solo passages.  These short cornet solos are more technically demanding than any of the preceding trumpet parts and may reflect the prevailing belief that the cornet was a more agile instrument than the valved trumpet.

            Concurrent with the introduction of low-pitched valved trumpets in the orchestras in France, high-pitched trumpets also became popular.  In 1873, M. Teste had his D Bach Trumpet fitted with a tuning slide that lowered the instrument to C pitch.  Teste used this C trumpet to play in popular music orchestras and it is reported that the high pitch of the trumpet made his performances unusually accurate.  When Teste was later hired as first trumpeter in the Paris Opera, he employed his C trumpet with regularity.[49]

            Resistance to the valved trumpet was greatest among the cornetists and (natural/slide) trumpeters of the Paris Opera and the use of two cornets and two natural trumpets continued there without interruption into the final decade of the century.  The natural trumpet was finally doomed by the first performance in Paris of Wagner’s Lohengrin in 1891.  No combination of cornets and natural trumpets could negotiate the frequent crook changes and accidentals of Wagner’s valved trumpet parts.  And as previously mentioned, the conductor, M. Lamoureux, already familiar with Teste’s valved trumpet, outlawed the continued use of natural trumpets and replaced them with valved instruments.  Teste was hired the same year and though his valved trumpet was initially received with hostility from the other members of the trumpet section, the high C trumpet had arrived as an important orchestral instrument.[50]

The invention of the C trumpet may also have been the result of a controversy that began in France mid-century, concerning the continuing practice of crooking brass instruments. Arban and Saint-Saens both argued that valves made the use of crooks obsolete and that all brass instruments should be built in C pitch to eliminate the need for transposition. They sought to convince composers to score their brass music in concert pitch and instrument makers to build only in C pitch as well.[51] While these arguments had little effect on composers, French instrument makers began to explore C pitch brass designs. Arban had Adolph Sax build him a high C cornet during the middle of the century, which he used with great success during his career.[52] Milleraux built the first high C trumpets in 1874, but Gustave Besson developed a better design during the 1880s,[53] a design which has become the basis for all modern piston-valved trumpets.[54] It should also be noted that G. Besson also developed the modern design for the B-flat trumpet at the same time.[55] (See figure 7)

Conclusions

By the turn of the twentieth century, the valved trumpet had replaced the natural trumpet and weakened the importance of the cornet in French orchestras.  The popularity of the high C trumpet spread throughout France, replacing the F and G trumpets, and C trumpets even superseded the B-flat trumpets in parts of Austria and Germany. At a trade exhibition in Markneukirchen in 1897, the C trumpets on exhibit were labeled “orchestertrompeten” and only one F trumpet was to be found anywhere on the premises.[56]

            The instrument that we call the modern trumpet was perfected during the late nineteenth century. (See figure 7) This instrument is pitched in high B-flat or C and uses either rotary or piston valves.  It becomes clear however, that this instrument is a hybrid, a compromise between the valved descendent of the true trumpet family and the cornet.  Performers faced with the necessity of making a living in nineteenth century bands and orchestras and presented with music demanding an ever-increasing level of technical ability, chose to adopt this hybrid instrument to succeed.  Dauvernè saw that this was inevitable as composers made increasing demands on the trumpeters of the nineteenth century, and he characterized this problem as “the abuse of writing too many chromatic notes (for the trumpeters).”[57]  The problem became even more acute as some composers extended the range of trumpet parts up to high c"'.  Trumpeters forced to play these parts accurately or lose their jobs looked for an instrument with valves and that was shorter in length.  Many military band instrument makers had been producing cornets and so-called short trumpets in high pitch since the 1830s for band use and made only minor design changes to produce orchestral instruments which satisfied the need.[58] The fact that these instruments were no longer real trumpets caused great alarm among many writers from the period but seemed to have had little effect on players or conductors.  Though composers, for the most part, specified the low-pitched trumpets in their scores, performers and conductors paid only scant attention, the necessity of accuracy being of paramount importance.

CHAPTER 2. THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY

The High-Pitched Trumpet in B-Flat and A

            The demise of the low F trumpet, the slide trumpet, and the cornet in the orchestras of Europe occurred during the early twentieth century.  With the exception of England, the high B-flat and C trumpets totally dominated the period as they have to the present day.  Modern trumpet designs had already been finalized by the beginning of the century.  Franz Streitwieser maintains that the German rotary B-flat trumpet of F. A. Heckel is still copied by modern makers and is the best design ever made.  Gustave Besson’s late nineteenth century B-flat and C trumpets were likewise used as the basis for the piston orchestral trumpets built in the United States during the twentieth century.[59]

            The substitution of high-pitched trumpets for F trumpets was almost complete in the orchestras of Germany by the turn of the century[60] but many writers still applauded the F trumpet.  Hofmann confirmed the dominance of the shorter trumpet in 1903, but mentioned that it lacked the “power” of the F trumpet.[61]  Pietzsch also commented on the inferior tone quality of the high-pitched trumpets, but stated that their superior intonation qualities helped accelerate their acceptance in the orchestra.[62]  And of course Walter Morrow’s edition of Kosleck’s School for the Trumpet, published in England in 1907, still extolled the virtues of the older instrument.[63]  At least one source mentioned that the F trumpet still found some limited use in orchestras in England as late as 1950.  Boulton states that: “…whilst the C and B-flat trumpets are most common, those in A and F are still sometimes used.”[64]  This late use of the F trumpet was almost always restricted to the lower parts of the orchestra section.

            Brief mention must be made concerning the trumpet and cornet pitched in A.  Composers attempted to avoid scoring for these instruments in sharp keys because of the intonation problems that often resulted before the invention of the tunable third valve slide.[65]  To avoid these keys, instrument makers began to build B-flat trumpets with a longer tuning slide or a valve in the tuning crook, both of which allowed the player to lower the pitch of the instrument a half step to A.  These mechanisms became quite common around the turn of the century in Russia, France, England, and the United States.  The B-flat/A trumpet and cornet design is still evident in the extra length of the tuning slide on modern instruments which can still lower the pitch of the instrument a half step.

Mahler’s Trumpet Parts

            Arguably, the most significant music ever composed for the trumpet in the orchestra is found in the symphonies of Gustav Mahler.  Mahler scored his trumpet parts for both the high B-flat and low F trumpet without the use of crooks.  But what is interesting about Mahler’s scoring techniques is that he seems to have had difficulty deciding which trumpet to employ at any given point in the music.  In fact, in most of his symphonies, the trumpeters are asked to switch back and forth from one instrument to the other.  Mahler’s scoring techniques are therefore, fundamentally different from Strauss’ or Wagner’s.  Strauss and Wagner employed the system of adding crooks to one valved trumpet, but Mahler seems to actually call for two different instruments.

            Mahler’s first two symphonies were scored for F trumpets only, but in the Third Symphony (1897), he asks for changes in trumpet pitch between F and B-flat.  The first three trumpets begin the first movement of the Third Symphony scored for F trumpet.  At the next entrance of the second, third, and fourth trumpets, they switch to B-flat trumpet while the first trumpet stays on the F trumpet.  The first trumpet finally changes to B-flat to play a military-style fanfare at rehearsal number thirty-two.  The next entrance of the first trumpet returns to F, and the key changes nine more times before the end of the first movement.  Of course, modern trumpeters play all this on one instrument and transpose the parts, but what was Mahler’s intent?

            There are three reasons, all previously mentioned, why a composer might choose to score for different pitches of trumpets:  The first, to imitate the natural trumpet by maintaining the maximum number of open notes possible or avoiding awkward finger patterns; the second, to score the highest notes for B-flat trumpet, thereby improving the accuracy of the performance; and the third, to exploit the timbral differences of the two trumpets as part of the orchestration of the symphony.  Perhaps this final explanation applies to Mahler’s trumpet parts.

            The military-style fanfare scored for B-flat trumpet mentioned above (rehearsal number thirty-two in the Third Symphony, first movement) is quickly followed by another fanfare-like phrase scored for F trumpet.  Neither of these examples seem to be scored to enhance the number of open notes available.  The B-flat fanfare was notated in D flat major, an awkward key on the trumpet.  The F trumpet fanfare was also notated in D flat major.  Not only are these keys awkward to finger, but open notes are almost nonexistent.

            Mahler wrote the phrase which includes the only high c"' of the symphony for B-flat trumpet.  It is possible that the B-flat trumpet was called for to improve the accuracy of this high note, but later music makes this seem unlikely.  The last movement confronts the first trumpeter with a number of high b"-flats and b"-naturals.  These notes are physically quite taxing and are especially difficult at the end of this long symphony.  If Mahler wanted to improve the accuracy of first trumpeters, he would certainly have scored this movement for B-flat trumpet also.  Yet he scored the entire movement for F trumpet, evidence that range was probably not a consideration.  Further complicating matters is the fact that Mahler scored the third and fourth trumpets in B-flat in the last movement, just the opposite of what might have been expected.  Richard Strauss indicated in his late nineteenth century revision of Berlioz’s Treatise on Instrumentation that it was common for the first trumpet to use a high-pitched instrument, but the second and third players generally employed low-pitched E-flat or F trumpets.[66]

            Mahler continued to exploit the high trumpet range in his later symphonies.  High c"' became a normal part of the playing range of the first trumpeter and even occurs in both the second and third trumpet parts on occasion, the finale of the Seventh Symphony being the most obvious example.  Mahler extended the range of the first trumpet to high d"' in the Eighth Symphony and even included a high e-flat"' in the first movement, but allows the player to play it down an octave if needed.  (See Figure 3)

            Mahler is considered to have been a brilliant orchestrator.  No less than Arnold Schoenberg stated that Mahler’s orchestration was an extremely important aspect of his compositional technique.[67]  This fact leads one to conclude that Mahler may have used two different types of trumpets to produce two different colors of tone.  As Essay 5 in this series will document, B-flat and F trumpets possess distinctly different timbres and one might employ them to such an end.  But close examination of samples of Mahler’s symphonic scores fail to reveal any obvious timbral trends relating to B-flat or F trumpet scoring.   But this may be explained by the fact that the intended instrumental colors are too subtle to discover from score analysis and may only be discerned by hearing the music played on the appropriate trumpets.  While there have been a few recent performances of Mahler symphonies using F trumpets, there are no recordings available in which trumpeters actually employ the F and B-flat trumpets called for so this is difficult to determine.  The ultimate test to discover once and for all if Mahler’s orchestration abilities account for this unusual scoring may have to await such an authentic recording.

            Regardless of Mahler’s motives for writing parts for B-flat and F trumpets, his trumpet writing was superb.  The inclusion of the long “posthorn” solo in the Third Symphony and the solo trumpet introduction of the Fifth Symphony are two of the most important trumpet solos in the repertoire.  Even Strauss’ important trumpet solos in works like Also Sprach Zarathustra and Ein Heldenleben, pale by comparison.  Mahler’s posthorn solo was not written for a natural posthorn as some have stated.  Valved posthorns were built continuously in Germany from the earliest days of valves for band use, and such an instrument was called for here.  At least two specimens of valved posthorns are found in the Streitwieser Collection.  Modern trumpet parts in the Weinberger Edition of this symphony are scored for flugelhorn rather than posthorn, but are often played today on B-flat or C trumpets, sometimes muted with a felt hat or cloth. The solo is very long, completely exposed, and physically very taxing so it is no wonder that modern trumpeters avoid playing it on extinct band instruments.  But what a glorious sound it must have been!

            One final important characteristic of Mahler’s trumpet scoring technique is his frequent use of mutes, as mentioned earlier.  Trumpet mutes were centuries old by Mahler’s time, but they had the effect of changing the pitch of the trumpet and were therefore, little used.  Late nineteenth century German and French composers however, valued the “stopped” timbre that resulted from the mute and used them with some regularity.  The metal “echo trumpet” described earlier notwithstanding, Mahillion described the mute as such: “The mute…is a sort of wood or metal plug which, inserted in the bell of the instrument, changes completely the quality of its sound.  Unfortunately, the old apparatus, like all those which we ill understand, has the effect of introducing the hand a certain distance into the bell, it raises the pitch of the instrument…  There is now made an apparatus of this sort which keeps the pitch exactly.”[68] Strauss and Mahler were the beneficiaries of this new “apparatus” and greatly increased the importance of the muted sound in the trumpet section.  Mahler’s use of mutes was quite extensive and both the B-flat and F trumpets employ them.

Debussy’s and Ravel’s Trumpet Parts

            French composers enthusiastically adopted the valved trumpet, both in F and C, at the turn of the twentieth century.  Following the example of Franck and Saint-Saens, Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel scored consistently for the trumpet and greatly reduced the relative importance of the cornet.

            Debussy expanded the technical demands on the trumpet by transferring to it, the virtuosic technique characteristic to the cornet.  He increased the technical agility required of his trumpet players while reducing range and endurance demands.  It is possible that former cornet players played these trumpet parts and that Debussy was exploiting skills that already existed, but whatever the reason, Debussy’s trumpet parts in works such as Nocturnes (1899) and La Mer (1905) show the flashes of technical brilliance that were previously the sole domain of the cornet. “Fetes,” the second movement of Nocturnes, is an excellent example of the transfer of cornet techniques to the trumpet.  The trumpet fanfares that open and close this short orchestral character piece are clearly idiomatic to the trumpet, yet demand great finger dexterity to execute, especially at the tempos often required.  The soft trumpet trio which highlights the middle section of the movement is particularly cornet-like in its technical demands, requiring an extremely soft, light, and facile approach.  It is also interesting that Debussy wrote this piece for F trumpet when it is far easier to play on the C trumpet.  Simply put, he seems to have preferred the sound of the F trumpet.

            La Mer is another example of cornet-like trumpet scoring.  The piece requires a significant amount of agile triple-tonguing at soft dynamic levels and only a relatively small amount of high, loud playing.  Of interest is the fact that Debussy scored this work for both F trumpets and cornets.  It is somewhat unusual that the cornets, when given important notes, tend to be higher and louder than the trumpet parts, just the opposite of their traditional role.  The trumpets are required to exhibit similar technical abilities, but are usually scored at softer dynamic levels and lower in range.  The trumpets, however, dominate the texture and the cornets are employed sparingly and only in the final movement.

            Maurice Ravel further expanded the technical demands required of the trumpet but he seems to have abandoned the F trumpet and instead, specified the high-pitched C trumpet in his scores.  Rapsodie Espagnole (1907) required a level of agility and technical prowess from the trumpet section rarely called for by composers before this.  The most daunting sections of the piece require all three trumpeters to double and triple tongue on melodic passages.  Multiple tonguing was not a new phenomenon in orchestral literature but Ravel was among the earliest to require it on melodic passages where finger and tongue coordination is especially difficult.  The influence of the cornet on this technique is obvious and Ravel, unlike Debussy, scored this work for high C trumpets more in keeping with that cornet idiom.  Daphnis et Chloe Suite No. 2 (1911) was scored for four C trumpets and again, required multiple tonguing on melodic passages.  It must be noted that though Debussy occasionally employed the cornet, Ravel abandoned it permanently.

The Orchestral Trumpet in England

            The English preference for the slide trumpet ended late in the nineteenth century with the death of Thomas Harper (the younger - d. 1898) and a valved replacement was sorely needed.  Tarr has observed that around the turn of the twentieth century the English seemed to emulate whatever instrument was being played by the leading trumpeter of the day.[69]  Walter Morrow was the star at the turn of the century and his chosen instrument was the F trumpet. (See Figure 9) Morrow commented on his preference for the F trumpet in the preface of his edition of Kosleck’s School… (1907): “The object of this treatise is to supply a good practice book for the trumpet in F, as now used in orchestras in England and America… It is hoped that this book will encourage the study of the real trumpet, as distinct from the cornet-a-piston, which frequently replaces the trumpet; but as regards beauty of tone, inadequately. Small trumpets in B-flat are also frequently used. They, however, are no better, if so good as the cornet in tone; but as they are made to look long, they are often mistaken for the real thing.”[70] Morrow was evidently quite persuasive as at least two contemporary sources mention the use of the F trumpet in English orchestras during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. D. J. Blaikley mentioned that the “modern” trumpet in England was the F valved trumpet.[71] Cecil Forsyth also confirmed the use of the F trumpet in the orchestra. Forsyth found the “dignified” tone color of the F trumpet tremendously different from the high B-flat and C trumpets.[72]

            But the F trumpet enjoyed only a limited period of use in England, from approximately 1885 to 1915.  Ulric Daubeny mentioned in 1920 that the F trumpet was previously in use, but that it was almost completely replaced by the B-flat trumpet in the orchestra.[73]  Morrow and Forsyth were quite adamant in their belief that the tone color of the F trumpet was definitely superior to that of the cornet or the high-pitched trumpets, but the relative ease of playing afforded by these newer instruments guaranteed their eventual success in England as it had earlier on the continent.  The following Essay 4 is a more complete discussion of Walter Morrow and his advocacy of the F trumpet.

 CONCLUSIONS

            The evolution of the orchestral trumpet, as we know it today, was completed during the first two decades of the twentieth century when the F trumpet was completely replaced by high-pitched trumpets in England, the last country of its use.[74]  This main branch of the trumpet family tree withered and died while the hybrid offshoot, originally started by the cornet-a-piston, continued to flourish.  And finally, even the composers ceased to write music for the F trumpet during the early twentieth century.  Orchestral music was scored most consistently for B-flat/A trumpet with some use of high C and occasionally D trumpets and cornets.  Compositional styles and tastes changed rather dramatically during the early twentieth century and the high-pitched trumpets with their louder, brighter tone quality may have been more suited to the new music.  But movement away from the F trumpet may also have occurred simply because players refused to play it, and composers tired of writing parts for an instrument that they rarely, if ever, heard.  Whatever the reasons, the orchestral F trumpet of the nineteenth century slipped completely out of sight early in the twentieth century and fell into a state of oblivion so complete that it is only now beginning to be studied again, well over a hundred years later.

So, is the instrument we play today, a “real trumpet”?  It is my opinion that modern B-flat and C trumpets, both in tone quality and design, are more like nineteenth century cornets and should not be used to play music written for the F trumpet.  Nineteenth century high-pitched trumpets manufactured by G. Besson and Courtois in particular, were especially cornet-like when the long, cylindrical tubing of the low F trumpet was replaced by the shorter, more conical tubing of the cornet.  Also, the long, tapered lead pipe and bell pipe of these new instruments reduced the proportion of cylindrical-to-conical tubing rather drastically.  And these were the instruments whose design directly influenced twentieth century trumpet builders. I have studied and played a variety of nineteenth century F trumpets and noticed distinct tone color differences between them and the higher-pitched trumpets of today, in all registers and at all dynamic levels.  And this perception is supported by the detailed acoustical analysis found in Essay 5 of this series of essays.  The modern orchestral trumpeter who is seriously interested in authentic performance practice of music from the Romantic Era is advised to continue reading.  But first, a more detailed look at the last great virtuoso on the F trumpet and what might have been, had his single-minded advocacy of the instrument been more accepted.  Enjoy!

[1] Hermann Eichborn, Die Trompete in Alter und Neuen Zeit, (Leipzig: Breitkopf and Härtel, 1881), pp. 98-99.

[2] Ibid, p. 100.

[3] Ibid, p. 86.

[4] Edward Tarr, Die Trompete, (Bern: Halweg Verlag, 1977), pp. 123-124.

[5] F. A. Gevaert, Neue Instrumentenlehre, (Leipzig: Otto Junne, 1887), p. 284.

[6] Herman Pietzsch, Die Trompete, revised edition, originally published in 1901, (Ann Arbor: The University Music Press), p. 24.

[7] Richard Hofmann, Die Musikinstrumente ihre Beschreibung und Verwendung, (Leipzig: J. J. Weber, 1903), p. 188.

[8] Walter Morrow, Julius Kosleck’s School for the Trumpet: revised and adapted to the study of the Trumpet-a-Pistons in F by Walter Morrow, (London: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1907), p. IV.

[9] Edward Tarr & Ernst Buser, Die Trompete:  Instrumente und Dokuments von Barock bis zur Gegenwart, (Bad Sackingen: Trompeterschloss, 1979), p. 57.

[10] Victor Mahillion, “The Trumpet…,” Dominant, Vol. XVI No. 9, (1908), p. 18.

[11] Hermann Eichborn, “Bemerkungen über eine neue Trompete von H. Moritz Schuster…,” Zeitschrift für Instrumentenbau, Vol. XII No. 31 and 32, (1891-1892), p. 597.

[12] Merri Franquin, “La Trompette et la Cornet,” Lavignac Encyclopedie de la Musique, Part III Vol. II, (Paris: Delagrave, 1927), p. 1612.

[13] Heinz Burum, “Erlebnisse und Erfajrimgen mit Kollegen und Schülern – 50 Jahre als Trompeter and Trompetenlehrer,” Das Orchester, Vol. XXXII No. 4, (1984), p. 320.

[14] Theodore Rode, “Wiederholter Wunsch zur Gründung einen Militärmusik…” Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, Vol. LXXVIII, (1882), p. 276.

[15] Gevaert, op. cit., p. 287.

[16] Hoffmann, op. cit., p. 187.

[17] Heinz Becker, History of Orchestration in Anthology of Music, edited by K. G. Fellerer, Vol. XXIV, (Köln: Farber & Farber, 1974), p. 30.

[18] Tarr & Buser, Die Trompete op. cit., p. 124.

[19] Ebenezer Prout, The Orchestra, second edition, Vol. I, (London: Augenor & Co., 1897), p. 211.

[20] Tarr & Buser, Die Trompete op. cit., p. 126.

[21] Pietzsch, op. cit., p. 24.

[22] Nikolas Rimsky Korsakov, My Musical Life, edited by Carl Van Vechten, translated by Judah A. Joffe, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1923), p. 116.

[23]  Julius Kosleck, Grosse Schule für Cornet à piston und Trompete (c. 1872), in Julius Kosleck’s School for the Trumpet, revised and adapted by Walter Morrow, (London:  Breitkopf and Hartel, 1907).

[24] Walter Morrow, “The Trumpet as an Orchestral Instrument,” The Proceedings of the Musical Association, Vol. XXI, (1894-1895), p. 141.

[25] Morrow/Kosleck op. cit, p. 4.

[26] Ibid. p. 26.

[27] Ibid. Introduction.

[28] Ibid. p. 31.

[29] William Stone, “Trumpet,” A Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. IV, first edition, edited by Sir George Grove (London: MacMillian & Co., 1900), p. 181.

[30] Henry Bassett, “On Improvements in the Trumpet,” Proceedings of the Musical Association, Vol. III, (1876-77), p. 140.

[31] Ibid. p. 142.

[32] Ibid.

[33] Prout, op. cit., p. 215.

[34] F. Corder, The Orchestra and How to Write for It, 6th edition, (London: J. Curwen, 1923, originally published in 1898), pp. 55 & 57.

[35] Arthur Elson, Orchestral Instruments and Their Use, New Revised Edition, (Boston: Page Co., 1902), p. 231.

[36] Bernard Shaw, Music in London (1890-1894), Vol. 1, (London: Constable & Co. Ltd. 1937), p. 166.

[37] Morrow, “The Trumpet…,” op. cit., p. 139.

[38] Richard Birkemeier, “The F Trumpet and its Last Virtuoso, Walter Morrow,” Brass Bulletin, Vol. 65 No. 1, (1989), p. 40.

[39] D. J. Blaikley, “Trumpet” in Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. V, 2nd edition, edited by J. A. Fuller Maitland, (New York: MacMillian Co., 1910), p. 171.

[40] Anthony Baines, “Trumpet,” in Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th edition, edited by Eric Bloom, Vol. VIII, (London: MacMillian & Co.), p. 561.

[41] Morrow, op. cit., p. 141

[42] Edward H. Tarr, “The Romantic Trumpet,” Part One, The Historic Brass Society Journal, Volume 5, (1993), p. 260.

[43] Franquin, op. cit., p. 1619.

[44] Ibid, p. 1611.

[45] Michael La Place, “Les Fondateurs de l’ecole Francaise de Trompette Merri Franquin, Eugene Foveau et Raymond Sabarich,” Brass Bulletin, No. 29, (1980), p. 68.

[46] Pietzsch, op. cit., pp. 27-28.

[47] Nikolas Rimsky-Korsakov, Principles of Orchestration…, edited by Maximilian Steinberg, translated by Edward Agate, (New York:  E. F. Kalmus, 1912), p. 23.

[48] F. G. A. Dauvernè, Methode pour la Trompette, (Paris:  Chez G. Brandus, Dufour et Cie, 1857), p. XXII.

[49] Franquin, op. cit. p. 1611

[50] Ibid.

[51] Jean-Pierre Mathez, “Arban (1825-1889),” Brass Bulletin, No. 10 (1975), p. 3.

[52] Ibid, p. 13.

[53] Anthony Baines, Brass Instruments (London:  Farber & Farber, 1977), p. 233.

[54] J Landress Brass, website: https://www.jlandressbrass.com/restoration.htm, accessed 4/16/21.

[55] Ibid.

[56] Baines, op. cit., p. 233.

[57] Dauvernè, op. cit., p. 152.

[58] Robb Stewart, “The History of the Modern Trumpet: or ‘get that #@$%&! Cornet out of my Orchestra’,” Robb Stewart Brass Instruments website: https://www.robbstewart.com/history-of-the-modern-trumpet, accessed 3/16/21.

[59] Ibid.

[60] Curt Sachs, Die Modernen Musikinstrumente in Max Hesses Handbücher, Band LXVII, (Berlin: Max Hess Verlag, 1923), p. 76.

[61] Hofmann, op. cit., p. 188.

[62] Pietzsch, op. cit. p. 24.

[63] Morrow, Kosleck’s School…, op. cit.

[64] John Boulton, “The Trumpet,” Halle, (Manchester: Jan., 1950), p. 11.

[65] Ulric Daubeny, Orchestral Wind Instruments, (London: William Reeves, 1928), p. 86.

[66] Hector Berlioz, Treatise on Instrumentation, enlarged and revised by Richard Strauss, translated by Theodore Front (New York: Kalmus, 1948), p. 282.

[67] Arnold Schoenberg, Style and Idea,s (New York: Philosophical Library, Inc., 1950), p. 24.

[68] Victor C. Mahillion, “The Trumpet,” Dominant, Vol. XVI No. 9, (1908), p. 19.

[69] Tarr, Die Trompete, op. cit. p. 125.

[70] Morrow, op. cit. p. iv.

[71] Blaikley, op. cit., p. 71.

[72] Cecil Forsyth, Orchestration, Vol. XVIII, (London: MacMillian and Co., 1914), p. 90-94.

[73] Daubeny, op. cit., p. 86.

[74] Birkemeier, op cit.